| A Time to ThinkGod speaks in the silence of the heart. Listening is the beginning of prayer. —Mother Teresa |
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| To ActLose yourself in your efforts. |
| A Time to ThinkI don't know what your destiny will be, but one thing I do know: the only ones among you who will be really happy are those who have sought and found how to serve.—Albert Schweitzer |
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| To ActLose yourself in your efforts. |
In the opening chapter of The Art of Followership (2008), essayist, Robert Kelley, suggests seven topical areas where additional research is needed and may benefit the continued exploration of the field of followership: “(a) world events; (b) culture; (c) leader (ship); (d) follower qualities; (e) role of the follower; (f) language of followership; (g) courageous conscience” (Riggio, Chaleff, & Lipman-Blumen, 2008, p. 9). In the United States, the average individual’s access to media and information has changed significantly in the past twenty-five years. Followership research might prove useful for “global issues such as suicide bombings “ (p. 10). Culture has an impact on who qualifies as a leader and which individuals are sought for leadership roles thus it would seem logical that the inverse relationship may hold true with culture being an influential factor for followership and who is expected to hold followership roles.
In the book Followership, Kellerman (2008) devotes significant thought to followers and followership. Like Kelley (1988), Kellerman (2008) poses thoughtful questions regarding the role followers play, especially related to follower-to-follower influence. Kellerman presents questions about leaders and types of followers attracted to various types of leadership.
One may find it perplexing why leadership has served to capture the overwhelming majority of attention for researchers and media. The focus tends to be on a leader and either credits or faults the leader for success or failure. Kelley (1988) writes, “organizations stand or fall partly on the basis of how well their leaders lead, but partly also on the basis of how well followers follow” (p. 142). Kelley clearly suggests that the leader-follower equation is not weighted at 100% leader and 0% follower contribution. Obviously some sort of ratio exists but the weights for leader and for follower are an area where research is needed. Over the last two decades, the role of followers seems to have grown as followers have asserted accountability on leadership in various situations. Riggio, et al. note the changing role of followership in writing, “Instead of viewing followers as the good soldiers who carry out commands dutifully, we need to view followers as the primary defenders against toxic leaders or dysfunctional organizations” (Riggio, Chaleff, & Lipman-Blumen, 2008, p. 14).
Porth, McCall, & Bausch (1999) propose a significant percentage of responsibility from followers by writing “the only source of sustainable competitive advantage for any organization over the long term is the commitment of qualified employees to the mission and vision of the organization” (p. 212). Riggio, Chaleff, & Lipman-Blumen (2008) write that followers in their ethical and legal oversight rules must “learn how to blow the whistle effectively, how to combat groupthink, how to avoid the dispersion of responsibility, and how to advance institutional integrity” (p. 15).
These challenges for followers are a tall order in a society that has not communicated great value for followers. Leaders and leadership have traditionally received attention and accolades. A change in psychological perspective may be needed in order for individuals to learn how to grow as excellent followers. Three suggestions for individual growth are:
(a) Teaching people that the followership role includes the courageous conscience, thus not only legitimating but mandating it, (b) helping followers find the personal courage to stand up, and providing the societal supports that encourage people to exercise their courageous conscience, (c) preparing followers so that when they do stand up, they are successful. (Riggio, Chaleff, & Lipman-Blumen, 2008, p. 15)
Relationship
While considering the emerging filed of followership it is worthy to note the role of relationship. Relationship is a two-pronged path for examination of followership covering both a systemic perspective and a personal engagement. With a systemic analysis, one may examine how followership functions within the larger organizational system while personal engagement research one may analyze how leader-to-follower relationships hinder or help the organization or how follower-to-follower influence developments or impacts (Popper, 2005, p. 35; Kellerman, 2008). Writing about the personal engagement area, Popper (2005) proposes “Relationships are dynamic interactions forming a psychological essence that may change in response to circumstances or to changes occurring in the leader’s or among the followers” (p. 35). Kezar (2006) underscores the important role personal relationships and networks hold, writing “the creation of networks is one of the most important contributions made by leaders in complex environment” (p. 42). One may deduct that the networks consists of followers. Kezar highlights follower-to-leader relational dynamics. Kelley (1988) observes that as organizations alter their structure, relationships will grow in importance, “As organizational structures flatten, the quality of those who follow will become more and more important” (p. 144).
Responsibilities of Followers
Chaleff proposes three responsibilities of followers: “(a) recognize his or her own power as a follower, (b) have the courage to stand with integrity, (c) reflect to the leader the consequences of the leader’s choices” (Chaleff, 1998, p. 3). Chaleff (2001) emphasized the importance of a full understanding of both the systemic and personal relationship in noting “It is the quality of the relationship of leaders and followers, all the way up and down the organization chart, that makes or breaks organizations” (p. 1).
Conclusion
Through exploring courage and followership in this paper, a primary outcome is that much additional research and exploration is needed in the areas of courage and followership. A leader’s moral code becomes a public matter and thus, so too does, a follower’s. Adhering to rigidity and denying the complexity of humans, organizations, and the interactions and relationships would be an excuse to escape responsibility and ultimately a lack of courage. In seeking to gain competitive advantage, or simply survive, organizations must grow in their understanding of the impact followers have and the important role courage may play in creating and developing excellent followers. As organizations continue to reshape themselves to meet the demands of the evolving world, the leader-centric model may become less important as a follower-centric model is developed.
Followership
One rarely hears about the construct of followership especially in Western culture. Followership is not a widely discussed area related to leadership. Only in the past two decades has the concept of followership garnered significant attention through research and publication. Riggio, Chaleff, & Lipman-Blumen (2008) write, “Gradually, a more follower-centric leadership model…insights, is emerging” (p. 3). Although Riggio, et al. suggests that followership is now part of common vocabulary, is taught as part of leadership classes, and at least one national conference enters around followership, most individuals continue to maintain a leader-centric perspective and have little awareness of followership definitions or characteristics. Further, most individuals do not actively work to cultivate positive and productive followers or a followership culture.
In the 1988 Harvard Business Review article, “In Praise of Followers”, author Robert Kelley proposes the characteristics attributed to outstanding leaders the same defining an outstanding follower. Kelley writes that the qualities of an effective follower are: “(a) they manage themselves well; (b) are committed to the organization and to the purpose, principle, or person outside themselves; (c) they build their competence and focus their efforts for maximum impact; (d) they are courageous, honest, and credible” (p. 144). Many organizations, companies, and self-improvement opportunities offer leadership development training. Few, if any, offer followership development training programs. Few new employee orientation programs delve into the types of followers or establish ways for followers to become better at following.
Followership Models
While significant research provides information defining various types of leaders, the categorization and analysis of followers is in the infancy stages. Broadly two proposals may be found categorizing followers. Riggio, Chaleff, & Lipman-Blumen (2008) utilize Kelley’s (1998) descriptions for followers as “sheep, yes-people, alienated, pragmatics, and stars” (1988, p. 143; 2008, p. 7). Sheep are individuals who follow without question or evaluation of leader’s or other follower’s choices while yes-people are engaged but lack critical thinking skills. The alienated followers were, at one time, effective followers but something happened and now they are critical and passive, as “they tend to sink gradually into disgruntled acquiescence” (Kelley, 1988, p. 143). The pragmatics are middle-of-the-road followers hold on for the ride but make no or little contribution. The star followers are the independent thinkers who make a positive contribution.
The X-Axis and Y-Axis of Challenge and Support
A second model for classifying followers is based on challenge and support. With support on the Y-axis and challenge on the X-axis, the four quadrants provide a structure for considering followers. A follower falling into the upper-left quadrant, low challenge, high support, relates to the yes-people. This “implementer” seems valuable as he or she serves as a get things done person but will likely fail to offer critical thinking and evaluation of the work (Riggio, Chaleff, & Lipman-Blumen, 2008, p. 74). Moving along the X-axis provides an upper-right quadrant of a high challenge and high support. The “partner” mirrors the star follower as this individual takes responsibility for self and others, offers thoughtfulness, and works hard (p. 75). The low support, high challenge quadrant produces the “individualist” who tend to function on the periphery and doesn’t garner the respect needed to be an excellent follower. The final quadrant, high challenge, low support is a “resource” follower (p. 74). A resource follower is simply a warm body that will do just enough to keep his or her job but no more. These follower types or categories provide a thoughtful foundation upon which future research may build. These models are relatively new and have received little critical analysis. Researchers will be well served to explore how these base models may be changing.
This Wednesday: 8 strategies to help you boost your happiness.
This is an exciting week for me! First, my book became available forpre-order
Second, and even more thrilling, the Happiness Project Toolbox is finally ready for prime time. Yes, it’s ready! I’ve been working on this companion site for so long; it’s hard to believe it’s actually going out in the world at last.
What is the Happiness Project Toolbox? As I was working on my happiness project, I invented several methods that helped me to boost my happiness. MyOne-Sentence Journal, my Personal Commandments, my Secrets of Adulthood, and of course – most important of all – my Resolutions Chart.
I remember exactly where I was when I got the idea for the Toolbox. I was walking up Lexington Avenue, between 77th Street and 78th Street, when I thought, “Wow, it would be great to have a site where people could chart their resolutions.” About ten steps later, I thought, “But a site like that should also allow people to keep their one-sentence journals, or post their happiness hacks.” Then it hit me. AHappiness Project Toolbox! I was so struck by the idea that I literally stopped in my tracks – I remember that the woman behind me ran into me and shot me a very annoyed look as she passed.
It was easy to have the idea; hard to turn it into reality. As with so many things in life, if I’d known how challenging it would be, I might not have attempted it. But now that it’s ready, I’m so happy I did it.
Novelty and challenge bring happiness; they also bring frustration and anxiety. In this case, despite periods of frustration and anxiety, I also had a tremendous amount of fun – in large part because of the brilliant, creative people at The Chopping Block, the web design firm who built the site. They love the project, too – they wrote, “The Happiness Project Toolbox is easily among the best projects in our twelve-year history. We're excited about the potential for building of a large community audience.”
They had a lot of good ideas to add, and also helped me figure out if some of my ideas were possible. For example, I’ve always been mesmerized by PostSecret, and I’m fascinated whenever people post on my blog with their own Personal Commandments, etc. (for example, I think often of one commenter's Personal Commandment, "Choose the bigger life"), so one of my favorite Toolbox features is the ability to see other people's posts -- unless they choose to keep entries private, of course. It’s super-addictive to read other people’s Personal Commandments, browse through their Inspiration Boards, learn from their Happiness Hacks…utterly absorbing. (Use the bar across the top to see other people’s entries.)
The Happiness Project Toolbox offers eight free Tools:
-- Resolutions: record and track your resolutions.
-- Group Resolutions: challenge several people to a group resolution.
-- One-Sentence Journal: keep a journal on any subject you like (my online one-sentence journal is “What I’m reading today”).
-- Personal Commandments: identify principles to guide your life.
-- Secrets of Adulthood: record what you’ve learned so far.
-- Happiness Hacks: share your hacks about clutter, exercise, mindfulness, etc.
-- Lists Tool: keep any list -- to-do, favorite things, things-to-do-before-I-die, etc.
-- Inspiration Board: pull together your favorite books, quotations, images, and websites.
The amazing Super-Fans group got the first look at the Toolbox. Thanks again, Super-Fans, for your enthusiasm and your efforts! The Super-Fans were great about alerting me to problems. When I sent out the link, I thought the site was perfect, but of course, when hundreds of people tested it, they discovered a lot of bugs. Now it should be working very well indeed.
However, there still may be some issues to iron out. I’d really appreciate it if you let me know if you have a problem (or praise). It would be a huge help, though, if instead of emailing me directly, you post to this discussion on the Facebook Page. That way, the web designers can see your comment and address it, without me needing to act as a go-between. It’s helpful to know what browser (and version) you use, and whether you’re on PC or Mac.
I had a great time designing the Happiness Project Toolbox. Check it out! I hope it will help you reflect on your values, keep your resolutions, and pull together material that inspires you. And I hope it’s fun! Please pass the link on to anyone else you think would enjoy it.
This could have totally been titled "Elizabeth Wallace is an introvert"
The habits and needs of a little-understood group
Caring for Your Introvert
Do you know someone who needs hours alone every day? Who loves quiet conversations about feelings or ideas, and can give a dynamite presentation to a big audience, but seems awkward in groups and maladroit at small talk? Who has to be dragged to parties and then needs the rest of the day to recuperate? Who growls or scowls or grunts or winces when accosted with pleasantries by people who are just trying to be nice?
If so, do you tell this person he is "too serious," or ask if he is okay? Regard him as aloof, arrogant, rude? Redouble your efforts to draw him out?
If you answered yes to these questions, chances are that you have an introvert on your hands—and that you aren't caring for him properly. Science has learned a good deal in recent years about the habits and requirements of introverts. It has even learned, by means of brain scans, that introverts process information differently from other people (I am not making this up). If you are behind the curve on this important matter, be reassured that you are not alone. Introverts may be common, but they are also among the most misunderstood and aggrieved groups in America, possibly the world.
I know. My name is Jonathan, and I am an introvert.
Oh, for years I denied it. After all, I have good social skills. I am not morose or misanthropic. Usually. I am far from shy. I love long conversations that explore intimate thoughts or passionate interests. But at last I have self-identified and come out to my friends and colleagues. In doing so, I have found myself liberated from any number of damaging misconceptions and stereotypes. Now I am here to tell you what you need to know in order to respond sensitively and supportively to your own introverted family members, friends, and colleagues. Remember, someone you know, respect, and interact with every day is an introvert, and you are probably driving this person nuts. It pays to learn the warning signs.
What is introversion? In its modern sense, the concept goes back to the 1920s and the psychologist Carl Jung. Today it is a mainstay of personality tests, including the widely used Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Introverts are not necessarily shy. Shy people are anxious or frightened or self-excoriating in social settings; introverts generally are not. Introverts are also not misanthropic, though some of us do go along with Sartre as far as to say "Hell is other people at breakfast." Rather, introverts are people who find other people tiring.
Extroverts are energized by people, and wilt or fade when alone. They often seem bored by themselves, in both senses of the expression. Leave an extrovert alone for two minutes and he will reach for his cell phone. In contrast, after an hour or two of being socially "on," we introverts need to turn off and recharge. My own formula is roughly two hours alone for every hour of socializing. This isn't antisocial. It isn't a sign of depression. It does not call for medication. For introverts, to be alone with our thoughts is as restorative as sleeping, as nourishing as eating. Our motto: "I'm okay, you're okay—in small doses."
How many people are introverts? I performed exhaustive research on this question, in the form of a quick Google search. The answer: About 25 percent. Or: Just under half. Or—my favorite—"a minority in the regular population but a majority in the gifted population."
Are introverts misunderstood? Wildly. That, it appears, is our lot in life. "It is very difficult for an extrovert to understand an introvert," write the education experts Jill D. Burruss and Lisa Kaenzig. (They are also the source of the quotation in the previous paragraph.) Extroverts are easy for introverts to understand, because extroverts spend so much of their time working out who they are in voluble, and frequently inescapable, interaction with other people. They are as inscrutable as puppy dogs. But the street does not run both ways. Extroverts have little or no grasp of introversion. They assume that company, especially their own, is always welcome. They cannot imagine why someone would need to be alone; indeed, they often take umbrage at the suggestion. As often as I have tried to explain the matter to extroverts, I have never sensed that any of them really understood. They listen for a moment and then go back to barking and yipping.
Are introverts oppressed? I would have to say so. For one thing, extroverts are overrepresented in politics, a profession in which only the garrulous are really comfortable. Look at George W. Bush. Look at Bill Clinton. They seem to come fully to life only around other people. To think of the few introverts who did rise to the top in politics—Calvin Coolidge, Richard Nixon—is merely to drive home the point. With the possible exception of Ronald Reagan, whose fabled aloofness and privateness were probably signs of a deep introverted streak (many actors, I've read, are introverts, and many introverts, when socializing, feel like actors), introverts are not considered "naturals" in politics.
Extroverts therefore dominate public life. This is a pity. If we introverts ran the world, it would no doubt be a calmer, saner, more peaceful sort of place. As Coolidge is supposed to have said, "Don't you know that four fifths of all our troubles in this life would disappear if we would just sit down and keep still?" (He is also supposed to have said, "If you don't say anything, you won't be called on to repeat it." The only thing a true introvert dislikes more than talking about himself is repeating himself.)
With their endless appetite for talk and attention, extroverts also dominate social life, so they tend to set expectations. In our extrovertist society, being outgoing is considered normal and therefore desirable, a mark of happiness, confidence, leadership. Extroverts are seen as bighearted, vibrant, warm, empathic. "People person" is a compliment. Introverts are described with words like "guarded," "loner," "reserved," "taciturn," "self-contained," "private"—narrow, ungenerous words, words that suggest emotional parsimony and smallness of personality. Female introverts, I suspect, must suffer especially. In certain circles, particularly in the Midwest, a man can still sometimes get away with being what they used to call a strong and silent type; introverted women, lacking that alternative, are even more likely than men to be perceived as timid, withdrawn, haughty.
Are introverts arrogant? Hardly. I suppose this common misconception has to do with our being more intelligent, more reflective, more independent, more level-headed, more refined, and more sensitive than extroverts. Also, it is probably due to our lack of small talk, a lack that extroverts often mistake for disdain. We tend to think before talking, whereas extroverts tend to think by talking, which is why their meetings never last less than six hours. "Introverts," writes a perceptive fellow named Thomas P. Crouser, in an online review of a recent book called Why Should Extroverts Make All the Money? (I'm not making that up, either), "are driven to distraction by the semi-internal dialogue extroverts tend to conduct. Introverts don't outwardly complain, instead roll their eyes and silently curse the darkness." Just so.
The worst of it is that extroverts have no idea of the torment they put us through. Sometimes, as we gasp for air amid the fog of their 98-percent-content-free talk, we wonder if extroverts even bother to listen to themselves. Still, we endure stoically, because the etiquette books—written, no doubt, by extroverts—regard declining to banter as rude and gaps in conversation as awkward. We can only dream that someday, when our condition is more widely understood, when perhaps an Introverts' Rights movement has blossomed and borne fruit, it will not be impolite to say "I'm an introvert. You are a wonderful person and I like you. But now please shush."
How can I let the introvert in my life know that I support him and respect his choice? First, recognize that it's not a choice. It's not a lifestyle. It's an orientation.
Second, when you see an introvert lost in thought, don't say "What's the matter?" or "Are you all right?"
Third, don't say anything else, either.
Jonathan Rauch is a correspondent for The Atlantic and a senior writer for National Journal.
– Pope John XXIII, Journal of a Soul: The Autobiography of Pope John XXIII
